Ethical, Legal & Environmental Impacts

GCSE — Unit 1: Understanding Computer Science

Ethical impacts: Privacy and cybersecurity issues

Ethics in computing involves considering whether the use of technology is morally right or wrong, and how it affects individuals and society. Two major ethical concerns are privacy and cybersecurity.

Privacy issues

Surveillance — governments and organisations can monitor online activity, CCTV footage, and communications on a massive scale. This raises questions about whether constant monitoring is justified
Data collection — social media platforms, search engines, and apps collect vast amounts of personal data, often without users fully understanding what is being gathered or how it is used
Profiling — companies build detailed profiles of individuals based on their browsing habits, purchases, and social media activity, which can be used for targeted advertising or even discrimination
Right to be forgotten — individuals may want their personal data removed from the internet, but this can conflict with freedom of information
Location tracking — smartphones and apps can track a user’s physical location, raising concerns about stalking, surveillance, and the misuse of location data

Cybersecurity issues

Data breaches — large-scale hacks expose millions of people’s personal data, leading to identity theft and financial loss
Cyberwarfare — nations may use cyberattacks to disrupt critical infrastructure (power grids, hospitals, transport systems) in other countries
Ransomware on public services — attacks on hospitals and schools can endanger lives and disrupt essential services
Responsibility — there is debate about who is responsible when a data breach occurs: the company, the software developer, or the hacker?
Ethical hacking — some argue that hacking to expose vulnerabilities is justified if it leads to better security; others argue that any unauthorised access is wrong

Ethics — a set of moral principles that govern what is considered right and wrong behaviour. In computing, ethical issues arise when technology affects people’s rights, privacy, safety, or wellbeing.

Ethical questions in exams rarely have a single “correct” answer. You are expected to discuss both sides of the argument and support your points with examples. For instance, CCTV improves public safety but reduces personal privacy.

The Digital Divide

The digital divide — the gap between those who have access to modern technology and the internet and those who do not. It creates inequality in education, employment, and access to services.

Types of Digital Divide

Type	Description
Economic divide	Poorer individuals and families cannot afford devices, broadband, or mobile data
Geographic divide	Rural and remote areas may lack broadband infrastructure
Generational divide	Older people may lack digital skills or confidence
Skills/education divide	Some people have not had the opportunity to learn digital skills
Disability divide	Not all technology is designed to be accessible to people with disabilities

Consequences

People without digital access are excluded from online services — banking, healthcare, government services, job applications, and education
The divide reinforces existing inequalities — those who are already disadvantaged fall further behind
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the divide became more visible as those without internet access could not participate in remote learning or working from home

Bridging the Divide

Government investment in broadband infrastructure for underserved areas
Free or subsidised devices and internet access for low-income households
Digital skills training in schools, libraries, and community centres
Designing technology to be accessible to all users

AI, Automation and Ethical Concerns

Job Displacement

Automation and AI may replace many jobs in manufacturing (robots), transport (self-driving vehicles), retail (self-checkouts), and customer service (chatbots)
New jobs are created in software development, data science, cybersecurity, and AI research — but these require retraining

Bias in AI

AI systems learn from training data — if that data contains biases, the AI will reproduce them
Examples: facial recognition systems with higher error rates for certain ethnicities, hiring algorithms that discriminate by gender, credit scoring that disadvantages certain groups
This raises serious concerns about fairness and discrimination

Accountability

If an autonomous vehicle causes an accident, who is responsible — the manufacturer, the programmer, or the owner?
If an AI makes a wrong medical diagnosis, who is liable?
The “black box” problem — many AI systems cannot explain how they reached a decision, making it difficult to hold anyone accountable

When discussing AI ethics, consider both benefits and risks. AI can improve healthcare, reduce human error, and increase efficiency — but it also raises concerns about bias, accountability, and job losses. Always give specific examples.

Censorship and Freedom of Speech

Governments in some countries censor the internet, blocking access to certain websites, social media, and news sources
Social media platforms moderate content by removing posts that violate their policies (hate speech, misinformation, violent content)
Misinformation — false or misleading information spreads rapidly online, and there is debate about who should be responsible for stopping it
The balance between preventing harm and protecting free speech is a key ethical challenge — over-censorship can suppress legitimate views, while under-moderation can allow harmful content to spread

Social media platforms use addictive design features (infinite scrolling, notifications, likes) to keep users engaged
Studies link heavy social media use to increased anxiety, depression, and loneliness, particularly among young people
Cyberbullying — social media provides a platform for harassment that can follow victims everywhere
FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) — seeing other people’s curated posts can create unrealistic comparisons
Echo chambers — algorithms show users content that reinforces their existing views, reducing exposure to different perspectives

Professional standards: Formal and informal codes of behaviour

People who work in the computing industry are expected to follow standards of professional behaviour, just like doctors or lawyers.

Formal codes of conduct

Professional bodies publish codes of conduct that set out the expected behaviour and responsibilities of computing professionals.

Examples include:

BCS (British Computer Society) Code of Conduct — requires members to act with integrity, respect confidentiality, and maintain professional competence
ACM (Association for Computing Machinery) Code of Ethics — emphasises honesty, fairness, and the responsibility to avoid harm
IEEE Code of Ethics — focuses on public safety, honesty, and avoiding conflicts of interest

Common principles in formal codes:

Principle	Meaning
Public interest	Prioritise the safety and wellbeing of the public
Integrity	Be honest and transparent in professional work
Competence	Only undertake work you are qualified to do; keep skills up to date
Confidentiality	Protect sensitive data and respect client privacy
Professional development	Continuously improve knowledge and skills
Responsibility	Take accountability for the impact of your work

Informal codes of behaviour

Not all standards are written in official documents. Many are unwritten expectations within workplaces and the wider tech community:

Open-source contributions — sharing code and knowledge freely with the community
Responsible disclosure — reporting security vulnerabilities to the software vendor before making them public, giving them time to fix the issue
Respectful communication — behaving professionally in online forums, code reviews, and collaborative projects
Whistleblowing — speaking up when an employer or colleague is acting unethically, even if it is not formally required

If asked about professional standards, give specific examples of codes of conduct (e.g. BCS) and explain why they exist — to protect the public, ensure trust in the profession, and provide a framework for resolving ethical dilemmas.

Legislation: Security, privacy, data protection, freedom of information

Several UK laws govern how computers and data may be used. You need to know the purpose and key provisions of each.

Computer Misuse Act 1990

This law makes it illegal to gain unauthorised access to computer systems.

Three main offences:

Unauthorised access to computer material — e.g. accessing someone else’s account without permission (up to 2 years imprisonment)
Unauthorised access with intent to commit further offences — e.g. hacking into a bank system to steal money (up to 5 years)
Unauthorised modification of computer material — e.g. deleting files, planting viruses, changing data (up to 10 years)

This law controls how organisations collect, store, process, and share personal data.

Key principles — personal data must be:

Principle	Meaning
Lawful, fair, and transparent	Collected legally with the person’s knowledge
Purpose limitation	Used only for the specified purpose
Data minimisation	Only the data that is needed should be collected
Accuracy	Data must be kept accurate and up to date
Storage limitation	Data must not be kept longer than necessary
Integrity and confidentiality	Data must be kept secure

The 7th principle is accountability — the organisation must be able to demonstrate compliance with all the other principles.

Data subject rights — individuals have 8 rights under the DPA/GDPR:

Right	Description
Right to be informed	Told how their data is being used
Right of access	Request a copy of the data held about them
Right to rectification	Have inaccurate data corrected
Right to erasure	Have their data deleted (“right to be forgotten”)
Right to restrict processing	Request that their data is stored but not processed
Right to data portability	Receive their data in a format that can be transferred to another service
Right to object	Object to their data being used for certain purposes (e.g. direct marketing)
Right relating to automated decision-making	Not be subject to decisions made solely by automated processing (including profiling) without human involvement

Penalties: Organisations that breach the DPA/GDPR can be fined up to £17.5 million or 4% of annual global turnover (whichever is greater). The Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO) enforces this law.

Freedom of Information Act 2000

Gives individuals the right to request information held by public authorities (government departments, the NHS, local councils, schools)
The public body must respond within 20 working days
Some information is exempt — for example, information that could harm national security or ongoing criminal investigations

Protects the intellectual property of creators — including software, music, images, and written works
It is illegal to copy, distribute, or modify copyrighted work without permission
Software piracy (copying and distributing software without a licence) is a criminal offence
Protects the rights of software developers to profit from their work

Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA)

Gives certain public bodies (police, intelligence services) the legal power to carry out surveillance and intercept communications (phone calls, emails, internet activity)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) can be required to give access to a customer’s communications data
Intended for national security, preventing crime, and protecting public safety
Controversial because it balances security against privacy — critics argue it enables mass surveillance

Communications Act 2003

Makes it an offence to send malicious, indecent, or threatening messages via electronic communications (email, social media, messaging apps)
Covers cyberbullying, online harassment, and sending offensive messages
Also regulates telecommunications services and broadcasting

Equality Act 2010

Requires organisations to ensure their digital services are accessible to people with disabilities
Websites and apps should be usable with screen readers, keyboard navigation, and other assistive technologies
Important for ensuring technology does not exclude people

Consumer Rights Act 2015

Gives consumers rights when purchasing digital content (software, apps, games, music, films)
Digital content must be of satisfactory quality, fit for purpose, and as described
Consumers can request a repair, replacement, or refund if digital content is faulty

Data Protection Act 2018 — the main UK law governing how personal data must be handled. It gives individuals rights over their data and imposes obligations on organisations that process it. Computer Misuse Act 1990 — the law that makes hacking and unauthorised access to computer systems a criminal offence.

You do not need to memorise the exact dates of legislation, but you should know the name, purpose, and key provisions of each act. A common question gives a scenario and asks which law has been broken — for example, an employee accessing a colleague’s email without permission breaks the Computer Misuse Act.

Environmental impacts of digital technology

The widespread use of digital technology has significant effects on the environment, both positive and negative.

Negative environmental impacts

Energy consumption — data centres that power cloud services, streaming, and the internet consume enormous amounts of electricity, much of which is generated from fossil fuels
E-waste — discarded electronics (phones, laptops, monitors) contain toxic materials such as lead, mercury, and cadmium. Much e-waste ends up in landfill or is shipped to developing countries
Manufacturing — producing electronic devices requires mining rare earth metals, which causes habitat destruction, water pollution, and significant carbon emissions
Planned obsolescence — some manufacturers design products to become outdated quickly, encouraging frequent replacements and increasing waste
Carbon footprint — every internet search, email, and streamed video generates carbon emissions through the energy used by servers, networks, and devices

Positive environmental impacts

Reduced travel — video conferencing and remote working reduce the need for commuting and business travel, lowering carbon emissions
Paperless offices — digital documents, email, and cloud storage reduce the need for paper, saving trees and reducing waste
Smart systems — smart thermostats, lighting, and energy management systems can reduce energy consumption in buildings
Environmental monitoring — sensors and satellites collect data on climate change, deforestation, and pollution, helping scientists and governments take action
Efficiency improvements — logistics software optimises delivery routes, reducing fuel consumption

What can be done

Action	Description
Recycling e-waste	Proper recycling recovers valuable materials and prevents toxic substances entering the environment
Using renewable energy	Data centres and manufacturers can switch to solar, wind, or hydroelectric power
Extending device lifespan	Repairing and refurbishing devices instead of replacing them
Energy-efficient design	Designing hardware and software to use less power
Responsible disposal	Following regulations for disposing of electronic equipment safely

Exam questions on environmental impacts expect balanced answers. Discuss both positive and negative effects, and suggest actions that individuals or organisations can take to reduce the negative impact of technology on the environment.

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