Economic, Moral, Legal, Ethical & Cultural Issues
AS — Unit 1: Fundamentals of Computer Science
Key Legislation
Several laws have been passed in the UK to govern the use of computers and data. You must know the purpose of each act, its key provisions, and be able to apply them to scenarios.
The Data Protection Act 2018 (incorporating GDPR)
This act regulates how personal data is collected, stored, processed, and used by organisations. It incorporates the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) into UK law.
The Six Data Protection Principles
Data must be:
| Principle | Description |
|---|---|
| 1. Lawful, fair and transparent | Data must be processed legally and openly — the individual must know what is happening with their data |
| 2. Purpose limitation | Data must be collected for a specific, stated purpose and not used for anything else |
| 3. Data minimisation | Only the minimum amount of data necessary for the stated purpose should be collected |
| 4. Accuracy | Data must be kept accurate and up to date; inaccurate data must be corrected or deleted |
| 5. Storage limitation | Data must not be kept for longer than is necessary for the stated purpose |
| 6. Integrity and confidentiality | Data must be kept secure using appropriate technical and organisational measures |
Individual Rights Under GDPR
| Right | Description |
|---|---|
| Right to be informed | Individuals must be told how their data is being used |
| Right of access | Individuals can request a copy of the personal data held about them (Subject Access Request) |
| Right to rectification | Individuals can request correction of inaccurate data |
| Right to erasure | Individuals can request deletion of their data (“right to be forgotten”) |
| Right to restrict processing | Individuals can request that their data is stored but not processed |
| Right to data portability | Individuals can request their data in a format that allows transfer to another service |
| Right to object | Individuals can object to processing of their data for certain purposes (e.g. direct marketing) |
The Role of the Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO)
- The ICO is the UK’s independent authority for data protection.
- Organisations that process personal data must register with the ICO.
- The ICO can investigate complaints, issue warnings, and impose fines for breaches (up to £17.5 million or 4% of global turnover under GDPR).
GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) is a comprehensive data protection framework that gives individuals control over their personal data and requires organisations to handle that data lawfully, transparently, and securely. In the UK, it is implemented through the Data Protection Act 2018.
The Computer Misuse Act 1990
This act was introduced to deal with the growing problem of hacking and other forms of unauthorised access to computer systems. It created three criminal offences (a fourth was added later).
| Offence | Description | Example | Maximum Penalty |
|---|---|---|---|
| Section 1 | Unauthorised access to computer material | Guessing or stealing someone’s password to access their account | Up to 2 years imprisonment |
| Section 2 | Unauthorised access with intent to commit a further offence | Hacking into a bank system with the intention of transferring money | Up to 5 years imprisonment |
| Section 3 | Unauthorised modification of computer material | Writing and distributing a virus, deleting files, or encrypting data with ransomware | Up to 10 years imprisonment |
| Section 3A | Making, supplying or obtaining tools for use in computer misuse | Creating and distributing hacking tools or malware kits | Up to 2 years imprisonment |
In exam scenarios, identify the specific section of the Computer Misuse Act that applies. Section 1 is about access (just getting in). Section 2 is access with intent to commit a further crime. Section 3 is about modifying or damaging data. The sections build in severity.
The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
This act protects the rights of creators of original works, including software, music, films, literature, and art.
Key Provisions
- It is illegal to copy, modify, or distribute copyrighted material without the permission of the copyright holder.
- Software is protected as a literary work — the source code is copyrighted.
- Software piracy (copying or sharing software without a licence) is a criminal offence.
- Reverse engineering software (decompiling it to understand how it works) is generally prohibited.
- Copyright applies automatically — the creator does not need to register it.
Types of Software Licence
| Licence Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Proprietary | The user buys a licence to use the software but does not own the source code. Copying and modification are prohibited. |
| Open source | The source code is freely available. Users can use, modify, and distribute it, often under conditions (e.g. GPL requires derivatives to also be open source). |
| Freeware | Free to use but the source code is not available. The user cannot modify it. |
| Shareware | Free to try for a limited time or with limited features. The user must pay for the full version. |
Copyright is the legal right of the creator of an original work to control how it is used, copied, and distributed. Under UK law, it applies automatically to software, music, text, images, and other creative works.
The Freedom of Information Act 2000
- Gives the public the right to access information held by public authorities (e.g. government departments, local councils, NHS trusts, schools).
- A request must be responded to within 20 working days.
- Some information is exempt from disclosure (e.g. national security, personal data, commercial interests).
- It promotes transparency and accountability in public services.
The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA)
- Regulates the power of public bodies to carry out surveillance and investigation.
- Allows authorised bodies to intercept communications (e.g. phone calls, emails, internet activity) for purposes such as national security, preventing crime, or protecting public health.
- Internet Service Providers (ISPs) can be required to provide access to a customer’s communications data.
- Raises significant ethical concerns about the balance between security and individual privacy.
You may be asked to discuss the tension between security and privacy in the context of RIPA. Be prepared to argue both sides — surveillance can prevent crime and terrorism, but it can also infringe on individuals’ rights to privacy and be open to misuse.
Ethical and Moral Issues in Computing
Ethics refers to principles of right and wrong that guide behaviour. Moral issues are closely related and concern personal or societal judgements about what is acceptable. Computing raises many ethical questions that do not have simple legal answers.
Privacy and Surveillance
- Companies collect vast amounts of personal data through websites, apps, social media, loyalty cards, and IoT devices.
- Targeted advertising uses personal data to show users ads based on their browsing history, location, and preferences.
- Facial recognition technology raises concerns about mass surveillance in public spaces.
- The question: Where should the line be drawn between convenience and privacy?
Artificial Intelligence and Automation
| Issue | Description |
|---|---|
| Bias in AI | AI systems can inherit biases from their training data, leading to unfair outcomes (e.g. biased recruitment algorithms that discriminate by gender or race) |
| Accountability | If an autonomous vehicle causes an accident, who is responsible — the manufacturer, the programmer, or the owner? |
| Decision-making | Should AI be used to make decisions that significantly affect people’s lives (e.g. criminal sentencing, medical diagnosis, loan approvals)? |
| Job displacement | Automation and AI may replace many jobs, particularly in manufacturing, transport, and customer service |
| Deepfakes | AI-generated images, audio, and video can be used to spread misinformation or commit fraud |
Ownership of Data and Software
- Who owns the data generated by users on social media platforms — the user or the platform?
- Open source vs proprietary: Is it ethical to charge high prices for software when open-source alternatives exist?
- Digital Rights Management (DRM): Is it ethical to restrict how people use content they have legally purchased?
Ethics in computing refers to the moral principles that govern the design, development, and use of technology. Unlike laws, ethical standards are not legally enforceable, but they guide responsible behaviour in areas where legislation may be absent or insufficient.
Environmental Impact of Technology
Negative Impacts
| Impact | Description |
|---|---|
| E-waste | Discarded electronic devices contain toxic materials (lead, mercury, cadmium) that pollute landfill and water supplies. The short upgrade cycle of devices worsens this problem. |
| Energy consumption | Data centres that power cloud services and the internet consume enormous amounts of electricity, much of it from fossil fuels. |
| Carbon footprint | Manufacturing, transporting, and running electronic devices all contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. |
| Resource extraction | Mining rare earth minerals for components (lithium, cobalt) causes environmental damage and raises human rights concerns. |
| Planned obsolescence | Some manufacturers deliberately design products with a limited lifespan to encourage frequent upgrades. |
Positive Impacts
| Impact | Description |
|---|---|
| Reduced travel | Video conferencing and remote working reduce the need for commuting and business travel. |
| Paperless operations | Digital documents, emails, and e-books reduce paper consumption and deforestation. |
| Smart energy systems | IoT sensors and AI can optimise energy use in buildings, transport networks, and power grids. |
| Environmental monitoring | Satellites and sensor networks enable real-time monitoring of climate, pollution, and ecosystems. |
| Efficiency gains | Automation and digital processes can reduce waste and improve efficiency in manufacturing and logistics. |
When discussing the environmental impact of technology, always consider both sides. Technology creates environmental problems (e-waste, energy use) but also provides solutions (remote working, smart grids, environmental monitoring). A balanced answer will earn more marks.
The Digital Divide
The digital divide is the gap between those who have access to modern information and communication technology (computers, the internet, digital skills) and those who do not. It exists between countries (global divide), within countries (social divide), and between generations (generational divide).
Causes of the Digital Divide
- Economic factors — technology and internet access are expensive; poorer individuals and countries may not be able to afford them.
- Geographic factors — rural areas may lack broadband infrastructure.
- Age — older generations may lack digital skills or confidence.
- Education — lack of digital literacy training limits people’s ability to use technology effectively.
- Disability — not all technology is designed to be accessible to people with disabilities.
Consequences of the Digital Divide
- People without digital access are excluded from online services (banking, healthcare, government services, education).
- Those on the wrong side of the divide have fewer employment opportunities as more jobs require digital skills.
- The divide can reinforce existing inequalities — those who are already disadvantaged are further disadvantaged.
Bridging the Digital Divide
- Government investment in broadband infrastructure for rural and underserved areas.
- Free or subsidised devices and internet access for low-income households.
- Digital skills training in schools, libraries, and community centres.
- Designing technology to be accessible to people with disabilities (e.g. screen readers, voice control).
Impact of Technology on Employment
Jobs at Risk from Automation
- Manufacturing — robots can assemble products faster and more accurately than humans.
- Transport — autonomous vehicles may replace drivers.
- Retail — self-service checkouts and online shopping reduce the need for shop workers.
- Customer service — chatbots and AI assistants can handle routine enquiries.
- Data entry — automated systems can process data more efficiently.
New Jobs Created by Technology
- Software development — the need for programmers, web developers, and app developers continues to grow.
- Cybersecurity — protecting systems and data from attack is a growing field.
- Data science and AI — analysing large datasets and developing AI systems.
- IT support — maintaining and troubleshooting technology systems.
- Digital marketing — managing online presence and social media.
The Gig Economy
- Technology platforms (e.g. Uber, Deliveroo, Fiverr) enable flexible, short-term work rather than traditional employment.
- Benefits: flexibility, autonomy, ability to work from anywhere.
- Concerns: lack of job security, no guaranteed income, no employee benefits (sick pay, pension, holiday pay).
For exam questions on the impact of technology on employment, discuss both the jobs that are lost and the new jobs that are created. Consider also the need for retraining — workers whose jobs are automated need new skills to move into the digital economy. A balanced, well-reasoned answer is always better than a one-sided argument.
Intellectual Property and Software Piracy
Intellectual Property (IP)
Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind — inventions, designs, artistic works, names, and images used in commerce. In computing, IP includes:
- Source code of software
- Algorithms and proprietary methods
- Databases and their structure
- Website designs and content
- Brand names and logos (trademarks)
Software Piracy
Software piracy is the unauthorised copying, distribution, or use of software. It is illegal under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
| Type of Piracy | Description |
|---|---|
| Counterfeiting | Producing and selling fake copies of software packaged to look genuine |
| Softlifting | Purchasing one licence and installing it on multiple computers |
| Hard disk loading | Computer sellers installing unlicensed software on machines before sale |
| Online piracy | Downloading or sharing copyrighted software via the internet without a licence |
| Client-server overuse | More users accessing a network-licensed application than the licence permits |
Consequences of Software Piracy
- For developers: lost revenue, reduced ability to invest in future development, reduced incentive to innovate.
- For users: no official support or updates, risk of malware bundled with pirated software, legal penalties.
- For the economy: loss of tax revenue, reduced employment in the software industry.
Software piracy is the illegal copying, distribution, or use of copyrighted software. It is a breach of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and can result in criminal prosecution and significant fines.